In our previous column, we emphasized the importance of teaching students how to analyze writing at the sentence level. We noted the various ways that sentences are complex and how much meaning they can convey. We provided examples of tools teachers could use to focus student attention at the sentence level. When students fail to understand individual sentences, their overall comprehension is compromised.
Structuring an Argument
Although it is true that sentence-level analysis is critical for developing literacy skills, we also recognize that students must be taught to construct longer passages. For example, did you notice the structure of our opening paragraph? The type of writing we used is known as CER, or claim, evidence, and reasoning (McNeill & Krajcik, 2011).
- Claim: A statement that presents an opinion, argument, or idea that the author is trying to prove or convince the reader of, often in response to a prompt, question, or idea (e.g., students need to be taught to analyze writing at the level of a sentence).
- Evidence: Evidence, data, facts, or sources used to support the claim (e.g., sentence complexity and levels of meaning in sentences).
- Reasoning: An explanation about how and why the evidence supports the claim (e.g., failure to understand individual sentences compromises comprehension).
Students need to become skilled at constructing reasoned arguments for writing and speaking. But increasingly sophisticated writing, beyond the sentence level, requires that writers understand that people may not agree with their opinions or arguments. Thus, students must learn to anticipate counterclaims and address them. Additionally, as students conduct more research, engage in discussions, or analyze texts more deeply, they should learn to reassess their claims in light of new evidence.
Exploring Counterclaims
As Novak and Treagust (2018) note, many students fail to adjust their claims in their writing when new and/or conflicting evidence emerges. This challenge persists even when classroom discussions, teacher feedback, and written scaffolds are integrated into lessons. This may be due to students ignoring new evidence, finding it too cognitively demanding to undo their initial idea, or not having experience in revising claims.
To address this, students need experience writing claims based on evidence and learning to revise those claims as additional evidence is gathered and reviewed. Students are more likely to do this when they are taught to anticipate counterclaims, or the idea that others may have different explanations for a phenomenon. Research suggests that, with explicit instruction, children as young as 3 to 5 years old can learn to anticipate counterclaims and consider alternative explanations (Köymen et al., 2020).
Scaffolding Counterclaims
Evidence-based counterarguments may be incomplete or faulty—or they may represent an alternative view or even a better claim. Teachers can help students anticipate and evaluate counterclaims using sentence frames within a CER framework.
Sentence frames provide a temporary scaffold that supports students in incorporating new structures in their writing. Figure 1 contains several sentence frames that students can use to anticipate alternative answers to a question or prompt. As students learn that others may have different opinions or ideas, and learn how to address them, they are more likely to revise their claims when the evidence points them in another direction.
In the video that accompanies this column, 6th grade teacher Caley Rolt at Loma Verde Elementary School in Chula Vista, California, focuses on teaching her students about counterclaims and arguments. The lesson at this dual language immersion program is delivered in Spanish and captioned in English. The teacher uses a sentence frame for students to practice their counterargument. They are also working on elaborating on their ideas and extending their writing in longer texts. Students work with partners to share their counterarguments, recognizing that others may make a different claim based on the evidence.
Strengthening and Deepening Claims
The claim, evidence, and reasoning framework helps students organize their thinking and recognize that they have responsibility to gather evidence and make informed decisions from that evidence. Adding a focus on the counterargument or alternative claim helps students re-examine evidence, perhaps revising their stance. Counterclaims also help writers strengthen their argument and encourage a closer reading and analysis of the text sources that are used.
Video Reflection: Counterclaims In Action
After watching the video, consider the following questions for reflection or discussion with your colleagues.
- How does the teacher introduce the lesson? What are students expected to learn?
- How do the student-to-student interactions support the expected learning? Why might the teacher devote time to peer collaboration?
- What role do counterclaims play in students’ writing? How might you teach students to construct counterclaims?
